A carver in 5th century Denmark sat with a knife and a branch of beech. He cut each stroke not as a letter but as a shape that held a name and a power. The first cut was a vertical line. The second crossed it. When he finished, the branch was no longer just wood. It carried Ansuz, the breath of a god.
What Are Runes? Definition and Origins
Runes are the letters of ancient Germanic alphabets, used for writing, divination, and magic. The oldest system, the Elder Futhark, contains 24 runes, each with a name, a phonetic value, and a layer of symbolic meaning that reaches beyond language. They appear on weapons, amulets, and stones from the 2nd century CE onward, and they remain a living tool for those who work with them today.
Where did runes come from?
The earliest known runic inscription dates to roughly 150–200 CE, carved on a metal comb found in Vimose, Denmark. It reads harja, a name or a word for “warrior.” That comb is the oldest witness to a script that scholars call the Elder Futhark, named after its first six letters: F, U, Þ, A, R, K.
The alphabet’s origins are debated. Some point to the North Italic scripts used by Alpine tribes. Others see influence from the Latin alphabet, adapted by Germanic peoples who encountered Roman writing. What is certain is that the runes were not a simple copy. They were shaped by the tools that carved them: straight lines and angled cuts, because curves were difficult to make in wood and stone. The word rune itself comes from Proto-Germanic rūnō, meaning “secret” or “whisper.” To carve a rune was to inscribe a secret.
By the 8th century, the Elder Futhark had evolved into the Younger Futhark of 16 runes in Scandinavia, while the Anglo-Saxons expanded it to 29 or 33 characters in the Futhorc. The runes survived as a writing system into the Middle Ages, then faded as the Latin alphabet took over. But the meanings never fully disappeared. They were preserved in rune poems: the Old English Rune Poem (c. 8th–9th century), the Norwegian Rune Poem (c. 13th century), and the Icelandic Rune Poem (c. 15th century). These poems give each rune a name and a verse that hints at its deeper significance.
That history explains why the runes we use today are not the same as the ones a Viking trader would have carved. The Elder Futhark, with its 24 runes, is the system most often used in modern divination and magic. It is the one we will focus on here.
What each rune actually means
The Elder Futhark is divided into three groups of eight runes, called ættir (families). Each ætt is named after its first rune and associated with a Norse god or concept. The first ætt belongs to Freyr and Freyja (fertility and wealth). The second to Heimdall (guardianship and boundaries). The third to Tyr (law and sacrifice).
We cannot list all 24 runes in depth here, but we can show the pattern. Every rune has a literal meaning (the object its name describes) and a symbolic one (the force it represents).
Fehu (F) means “cattle.” Cattle were wealth in the Germanic world. The rune stands for movable wealth, abundance, and the energy that flows through it. Uruz (U) means “aurochs,” the wild ox. It is raw strength, endurance, and the untamed force of nature. Thurisaz (Þ) means “thorn” or “giant.” It is a defensive force, a barrier, but also a destructive one if provoked. Ansuz (A) means “god,” specifically Odin. It is the breath of inspiration, communication, and wisdom.
Raidho (R) means “ride” or “journey.” It is travel, both physical and spiritual, and the rhythm of the wheel. Kenaz (K) means “torch.” It is fire that illuminates and transforms, the flame of the forge and the hearth. Gebo (G) means “gift.” It is exchange, generosity, and the balance of giving and receiving. Wunjo (W) means “joy.” It is harmony, fulfillment, and the absence of strife.
The remaining runes follow the same logic. Hagalaz (H) is “hail,” a destructive natural force that also clears the way. Nauthiz (N) is “need,” constraint that breeds resourcefulness. Isa (I) is “ice,” stillness and preservation. Jera (J) is “year,” the cycle of harvest and reward. Eihwaz (Ei) is “yew,” the tree of life and death, endurance. Perthro (P) is a “lot box” or “dice cup,” fate and the unknown. Algiz (Z) is “elk” or “protection,” a raised hand or antler that guards. Sowilo (S) is “sun,” victory and wholeness.
Tiwaz (T) is the god Tyr, justice and self-sacrifice. Berkano (B) is “birch,” growth and new beginnings. Ehwaz (E) is “horse,” partnership and trust. Mannaz (M) is “human,” the self and community. Laguz (L) is “water,” the flow of intuition and the unconscious. Ingwaz (NG) is the god Ing, fertility and inner growth. Dagaz (D) is “day,” dawn and breakthrough. Othala (O) is “ancestral property,” inheritance and home.
These meanings are not fixed. They shift with context, with the question asked, with the runes that fall beside them. The rune poems give a starting point, but the real understanding comes from working with them.
How runes are used in practice
The runes are used in practice in three registers. They are used for the writing — the earliest script of the Germanic peoples, carved on the stone and the wood, the letters of the inscriptions. They are used for the divination — the drawing of the runes, the reading of the symbols, the counsel of the cast. And they are used for the magic — the binding of the runes into the objects, the carvings of the protection and the blessing, the working of the symbols. These meanings are not fixed: they shift with the context, with the tradition, and with the reading, and the practitioner learns the runes as the language — the letters, the symbols, and the powers, each read in its place. Notable figures in the modern revival include Guido von List, who systematized the esoteric reading of the runes in the early twentieth century, and the practitioners who followed him into the modern rune work.
How Were Runes Used in Ancient Times?
Historically, runes were carved into wood, bone, metal, and stone. They were used for everyday writing: labels, owner names, short messages. But they also served a magical purpose. The 6th century Björketorp stone in Sweden bears a curse formula carved in runes. The 9th century Ribe skull fragment carries a healing charm. Runes appear on swords and shields, on amulets worn for protection, on the prows of ships.
The Hávamál, a poem in the Poetic Edda (compiled in the 13th century, but older in oral tradition), tells how Odin won the runes by hanging on Yggdrasil for nine nights, pierced by his own spear. He did not learn them from a teacher. He took them by sacrifice. That story shapes how runes are approached: they are not just symbols to be read, but forces to be earned.
In modern practice, runes are most often used for divination. A set of 24 (or 25, if one includes the modern blank rune) is made from wood, stone, or clay. The caster draws one or several runes, or casts them onto a cloth, and interprets their positions and relationships. The blank rune is a 20th century invention, popularized by Ralph Blum in his 1982 book The Book of Runes. It has no historical basis, but some readers use it to represent the unknown. We do not include it in our own set. The 24 are enough.
Runes are also used in meditation and magic. A single rune can be visualized, drawn on the body, or carved into a candle. The purpose is not to “cast a spell” in the Hollywood sense, but to align oneself with the rune’s energy. Algiz on a doorframe for protection. Fehu on a wallet for prosperity. Ansuz on a notebook for inspiration. The rune becomes a focus, a reminder, a channel.
Runes are often compared to ogham, the Celtic tree alphabet used in Ireland and Britain from the 4th century CE. Both are scripts of straight lines, both have magical associations, and both are used in modern divination. But they are unrelated. Ogham is based on the Latin alphabet in its structure, while runes derive from North Italic or Latin models independently. Ogham has 20 letters (later 25), runes have 24 in the Elder Futhark. Their meanings are tied to different mythologies: ogham to trees and the Irish gods, runes to the Norse and Germanic pantheon.
Another comparison is with the Latin alphabet itself. Runes were never a full writing system for literature. They were used for short inscriptions, not for long texts. That is partly why they retained their magical aura. A rune was not a neutral character. It was a sign that did something.
Notable figures in the modern revival include Guido von List (1848–1919), an Austrian occultist who created the Armanen runes, a modified 18-rune system based on the Younger Futhark. List’s work was later appropriated by Nazi ideology, which twisted the runes into symbols of racial purity. That history is not the runes’ fault, but it must be acknowledged. The Sowilo rune, for example, was used by the SS. Today, many practitioners consciously reclaim the runes from that misuse by returning to the historical sources and the original meanings.
What people get wrong about runes
The common error is treating the runes as a fixed fortune-telling system — the symbols with the one universal meaning, the dictionary as the key to the cast. The runes are the historical script of the Germanic peoples, and the esoteric reading is one layer of their use, built on the older lore and the modern revival. Notable figures in the modern revival include Guido von List and the runic practitioners who followed, and the modern system is a synthesis — the historical letters, the traditional lore, and the esoteric reading combined. Another error is the association of the runes with the political extremism; the runes were misappropriated by the Nazi movement, and the modern practitioners have worked to reclaim the symbols from that abuse. The runes are the letters of a great tradition, and the reading is the art of the letters.
Common Rune Myths and Misconceptions
The most common misconception is that runes are “just an alphabet.” They are that, but they are also more. The word rune itself means “secret.” To the people who carved them, the act of writing was not mundane. It was a transaction with the unseen. Another error is the idea that runes are inherently evil or tied to black magic. This comes from Christian medieval sources that condemned runic charms as pagan superstition. But runes were used for healing, protection, and blessing as often as for curses. They are tools, not forces. The “Viking runes” that appear in popular culture are usually the Younger Futhark, which has 16 runes. The Elder Futhark is older and was used by the Germanic tribes before the Viking Age. If you see a set of 24 runes, it is the Elder Futhark. Finally, the blank rune. It is not historical. It was invented in the 1980s. Some readers find it useful; others reject it. We fall in the latter camp. The 24 runes contain all the forces you need. The unknown is already present in Perthro and Hagalaz.
FAQ
How many runes are there in the Elder Futhark?
24 runes, divided into three ættir of eight. The Younger Futhark has 16, and the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc has 29 to 33.
Can you make your own runes?
Yes. Many practitioners carve their own from wood, stone, or bone. The act of making them is part of the connection. Use a branch from a tree you know, or a stone from a place that matters to you.
What is the difference between Elder and Younger Futhark?
The Elder Futhark (24 runes) was used from the 2nd to the 8th century across Germanic Europe. The Younger Futhark (16 runes) developed in Scandinavia during the Viking Age, simplifying the alphabet. The meanings shifted as well.
Are runes dangerous?
No more than any tool. They can be used for harmful purposes, but that is true of a knife or a word. The danger lies in the intention, not the symbol.
The runes are not a dead script. They are a living language of symbols that speak to the same forces our ancestors carved into bone and stone. If you want to go deeper, explore our guide to divination systems or read about the related symbols in ogham. For a broader view of the traditions that gave us the runes, see our Norse mythology guide. The first cut is the hardest. After that, the wood remembers.